The Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 - India’s First Fight for Independence

In 1857–59, the Indian Mutiny, also known as the Sepoy Mutiny or the First War of Independence, was a massive but ultimately unsuccessful revolt against British control in India. It began in Meerut and spread to Delhi, Agra, Kanpur, and Lucknow, with Indian troops (sepoys) serving in the British East India Company. It is known in India as the First War of Independence and other names. 

The uprising constituted a significant danger to British dominance in the region, and it was only put down on June 20, 1858, when the rebels were defeated in Gwalior. The British gave amnesty to those rebels who were not implicated in murder on November 1, 1858; however, they did not proclaim the war officially finished until July 8, 1859. In this article we will be covering the 1857 mutiny and its related important details.

History of the Revolt of 1857

To dismiss the uprising as a sepoy mutiny is to overlook the core circumstances that led to it. By the 1850s, the East India Company had gained control over a large portion of India. The East India Enterprise, a private company that entered India to trade in the 1600s, later evolved into a diplomatic and military organisation. The firm used a large number of native soldiers, known as sepoys, to keep order and defend trading sites. British officers were in charge of the sepoys in general. Sepoys took great pride in their military abilities in the late 1700s and early 1800s, and they were fiercely loyal to their British superiors.

However, tensions began to surface in the 1830s and 1840s. Many Indians began to assume that the British were attempting to convert the Indian population to Christianity. As more Christian missionaries arrived in India, speculations of impending conversions gained traction. There was also a widespread perception that English officers were losing contact with the Indian troops who were under their command. The East India Company would seize control of Indian territories where a local monarch died without an heir under a British strategy known as the "doctrine of lapse." The method was vulnerable to exploitation, and the firm utilized it to illegally annex areas. In the 1840s and 1850s, as the East India Company conquered Indian nations, Indian troops in the company's employ began to feel outraged.

Main Causes of the Mutiny of 1857

Historians have identified various political, economic, military, religious, and social causes of the 1857 Indian rebellion. 

• Political Causes

The British policy of expansion: The British policy of expansion through the Doctrine of Lapse and direct annexation was the political grounds of the revolution. Many Indian monarchs and chiefs were deposed, instilling fear in the hearts of other royal families who feared a similar fate.

The adoptive son of Rani Lakshmi Bai was not allowed to ascend on the throne of Jhansi. Under the Doctrine of Lapse, Satara, Nagpur, and Jhansi were annexed.

Also annexed were Jaitpur, Sambalpur, and Udaipur. Lord Dalhousie's acquisition of Awadh on the pretense of maladministration resulted in the joblessness of thousands of lords, officials, retainers, and troops. This action turned Awadh, which had hitherto been a loyal state, into a hotbed of dissatisfaction and intrigue.

What is the Doctrine of Lapse?

Lord Dalhousie was the first to use the famous British approach known as the Doctrine of Lapse in the late 1840s. The British prevented a Hindu ruler without a natural heir from adopting a successor and annexed his land after the ruler died or abdicated. To these issues was added the growing discontent of the Brahmans, many of whom had lost prestigious positions or had lost their revenues.

• The Social and Religious Cause of the Rebellion of 1857

The fast expansion of Western Civilisation in India sparked worry throughout the country. A Hindu law of inheritance was altered in 1850, allowing a Hindu who converted to Christianity to inherit his ancestral lands. People believed that the government intended to convert Indians to Christianity. The legalization of widow remarriage and the eradication of customs like Sati and female infanticide were seen as threats to the existing social system. For Hindus and Muslims alike, introducing western techniques of education was a direct challenge to orthodoxy. Even the arrival of railways and the telegraph was met with skepticism.

• Economic Cause of the Revolt of 1857

Peasants and zamindars in rural areas were enraged by the Company's high land taxes and strict revenue collection techniques. Many of these clans were unable to satisfy the high tax demands and repay their money lenders, and their lands, which they had held for generations, were eventually forfeited. Because a large number of sepoys belonged to the peasantry class and had familial links in villages, the peasants' grievances impacted them as well. Following the Industrial Revolution in England, a flood of British-produced goods flooded India, destroying businesses, particularly the Indian textile industry. The handicraft industry in India had to compete with low-cost British machine-made items.

• Military Causes of the Mutiny of 1857

The Revolt of 1857 began as a sepoy mutiny: Indian sepoys made up over 87 percent of British forces in India, yet they were seen as inferior to British soldiers. A sepoy from India was paid less than a sepoy from Europe of the same rank. They had to serve in regions that were far from their homes. Lord Canning issued the General Services Enlistment Act in 1856, requiring sepoys to be ready to serve even if they were on British soil across the sea.

Immediate Causes of the Mutiny of 1857

The incidence of greased cartridges eventually sparked the Revolt of 1857. There was a rumour that the new Enfield rifles' cartridges were lubricated with cow and pig fat. The sepoys had to nibble off the paper on the cartridges before loading these guns. They were rebuffed by both Hindu and Muslim sepoys. Lord Canning attempted to right the wrong by withdrawing the problematic cartridges, but the harm had already been done. There was rioting in a number of locations. Mangal Pandey, a sepoy at Barrackpore, had refused to use the cartridge and assaulted his superior officers in March 1857. On April 8th, he was hanged to death. On May 9th, 85 troops at Meerut were sentenced to ten years in prison for refusing to use the new firearm. 

Centres of the Revolt of 1857

The uprising expanded across the entire region, from Patna's outskirts to Rajasthan's borders. Kanpur, Lucknow, Bareilly, Jhansi, Gwalior, and Arrah in Bihar were the primary centres of insurrection in these areas.

• Lucknow: Awadh's capital was Lucknow. Begum Hazrat Mahal, one of the ex-king of Awadh's begums, took command of the revolt.

• Kanpur: Nana Saheb, Peshwa Baji Rao II's adopted son, led the revolt. He joined the revolt primarily because the British had taken away his pension. The victory was fleeting. After fresh reinforcements arrived, the British recaptured Kanpur. The revolt was crushed with a heinous vengeance. Nana Saheb escaped, but his brilliant commander Tantia Tope persisted in the fight. Tantia Tope was eventually defeated, apprehended, and executed.

• Jhansi: Rani Lakshmi Bai, twenty-two, led the rebels after the British refused to recognize her adopted son's claim to the throne of Jhansi. She fought valiantly against the British forces but was eventually defeated by them.

• Gwalior: Tantia Tope joined Rani Lakshmi Bai after she escaped, and the two marched to Gwalior and captured it. Fierce fighting ensued, during which the Rani of Jhansi fought like a tigress but died fighting to the death. The British re-captured Gwalior.

• Bihar: Kunwar Singh, a member of the royal house of Jagdispur in Bihar, led the revolt. 

How Did the British Suppress the Revolt of 1857?

The Revolt of 1857 lasted over a year. By the middle of 1858, it was suppressed. Lord Canning declared peace on July 8, 1858, fourteen months after the outbreak at Meerut.

Causes of Failure 

• Despite the fact that the revolt was fairly widespread, a large portion of the country remained unaffected. The Doab region was largely spared from the revolt. Sind, Rajputana, Kashmir, and the majority of Punjab. The large princely states of Hyderabad, Mysore, Travancore, and Kashmir, as well as the smaller Rajputana princely states, did not join the rebellion. The southern provinces did not participate. 

• The insurgents lacked a strong commander. Despite the fact that Nana Saheb, Tantia Tope, and Rani Lakshmi Bai were courageous leaders, they were unable to effectively lead the movement as a whole.

• In terms of both soldiers and money, the insurgents lacked resources. In India, on the other hand, the English received a regular supply of soldiers, money, and weaponry.

• The British were assisted in suppressing the insurrection by the English educated middle class, wealthy merchants, traders, and zamindars of Bengal.

Aftermath of the Mutiny of 1857

• End of East India Company Control: The revolution brought the East India Company's rule in India to an end.

• The British Crown's direct rule: India was placed under the direct rule of the British Crown. Lord Canning declared this at a Durbar at Allahabad on November 1, 1858, in the name of the queen, in a proclamation.

• Religious Tolerance: It was promised and achieved because India's cultures and traditions were respected.

• The governor general's post was abolished, and the Viceroy's office was established.

• Military Reorganization: While the proportion of British commanders to Indian soldiers grew, the armoury remained under English hands. It was planned to put an end to the Bengal army's domination.

Conclusion

In the history of British control in India, the uprising of 1857 was unparalleled. Many parts of Indian society were brought together for a similar purpose, although in a limited way. Despite the fact that the revolution failed to achieve its goal because of many reasons but it did sow the seeds of Indian nationalism. It was considered as one of the turning points in the Indian history after which the entire course of events changed.