Kublai Khan Biography

Fulfilling the ambitions of his grandfather (Genghis Khan), Kublai Khan led the Mongols in conquering one of the largest empires in history, China. When Kublai succeeded his grandfather in the 1260s, he came up with a complete revamp of the administrative apparatus of the country. He was the first ruler, in Mongolian history, who embraced the local cultures of the territories he conquered and consequently became a ruler who was both loved and feared. For a long time, there was prosperity in the Yuan dynasty when Kublai Khan ruled.

A reign lasting from 1260 till 1294, Kublai was the fifth Khagan and expanded the Mongol Empire to its widest reaches. With its share of discriminatory policies leading to political strife and even the collapse of military campaigns in Java and Japan, Kublai Khan biography is one of the most interesting episodes in Mongolian history.

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Who Was Kublai Khan?

After Mongke, the fourth Mongol ruler died in 1259, Kublai Khan was next in line to ascend to the throne. It wasn’t just the bloodline that put Kublai in a favourable position, but he had already been helping the Mongol empire to grow as far as Syria in the west. By his early 20’s, Kublai had already created his followers among various ethnic groups and philosophies. This included Central Asian Muslims, high-ranking military men from the Mongol army, Turkish officials, and even the Nestorian Christian Shiban, who acted as his advisors. Skilled in the art of way from a very young age, Kublai was already learned in Chinese culture and philosophy. His qualities of being both shrewd in military strategies and also being a people’s person at the same time, helped him to make a circle in all quarters. By 1251, he was already the viceroy of the Northern Chinese province, now under Mongol rule. With the Chinese royal family already fleeing for their life southwards, the city of Yen Chen, what we now know as Beijing, was Kublai Khan’s territory.

However, Kublai had eyed more. On Mongke’s orders, Kublai had captured the Dali Kingdom in Yunnan territory by 1252. This was a war campaign that had lasted three years and by the end of it, the whole of the Yunnan territory was under his regime. This was also the first of victories that showcased Kublai’s prowess as a ruler and the rightful successor to the Mongol dynasty.

What Did Kublai Khan Do?

The success in Yunnan encouraged Kublai for bigger military campaigns and the first step towards this was the establishment of a new capital to work from. What came to be known as Shang-tu (pronounced Xanadu today), or the Central Capital was a frontier in between the Mongolian steppes and the agricultural plains of China.

Soon after, the Mongols went to war with the Song Dynasty under Mongke’s banner while Kublai’s younger brother, Arik, was sent to the Karakorum, the Mongol capital. In 1259, Mongke died fighting in the Sichuan Province and by the advantage of his presence, Arik declared himself the “Great Khan”. This was a position that was desired by both the other brothers, thus resulting in a civil war to crop up and the eventual surrender of Arik in 1264.

Being the “Great Khan”, the ruler of the great Mongol Empire, Kublai wanted to unify all of China and established the Yuan Dynasty, with his capital in modern-day Beijing.

Taking Over From the Chinese

By 1271, Kublai Khan had set up the Yuan Dynasty and after 5 years of campaigns, he was able to get the Song royal family to surrender. With the last of the song loyalists being brushed off, Kublai brought together the country, while adopting and improving upon the many Chinese ideals and systems. With the locals' customs intact, it didn't take for the country to prosper. The Chinese locals welcomed the religious tolerance of their new ruler as the empire took new strides in mapping, medicine, trade, and other scientific and financial advancements.

Kublai Khan’s Administration: New Strides in Governance

Mongols had always been nomadic and this ensured that every person in the tribe has an important role to play. This was true even when the nomadic tribes came together to form among the largest empires in history. During Kublai Khan’s rule, the social fabric was even smoother. Women had the same rights as men, including their right to inherit property and to work in high administrative positions. Women from the common folk too looked up to take up important positions in the government. A lot of this is attributed to the value-based education system followed by Sorghaghtani, Kubai Khan’s mother. Kublai was raised to be open-minded and independent and so was his wife, Chabi.

Kublai Khan’s biography is incomplete without the mention of Marco Polo! The royal couple was so open-minded and welcoming of different cultures, that Marco Polo, the legendary explorer, was appointed to Kublai Khan’s court in diplomatic positions. He went on to hold on to his position in the Mongol dynasty for more than 16 years after which he returned to Venice to spent the last of his years.

In 1260, Kublai Khan came up with the first paper currencies, called the Jiaochao. While the Mongols had floated the idea of paper currencies since 1227, this was the first time that the bills were widely circulated and introduced to all kinds of trade. The government began accepting public taxes in Jiaochao and these bills were even convertible to gold and silver, to guard against devaluation. Thus, Kublai made his mark in history as the first “flat money” maker. The paper currency didn’t just make exchanges easier but also reduced the cost of non-convertible copper coins.

Another notable contribution of Kublai Khan’s reign was the “Academy of Scholarly worthies”. This academy even encouraged locals art forms, despite Kublai being known for his anti-Daoist edicts. In fact, Zhang Liushan was appointed as the patriarch of Xuánjiào or the “Mysterious Order”. It was these Daoist temples that attracted foreign attention, which led to the visit of Marco Polo.

Tensions Beyond China

Despite trying to bring the entire Chinese dynasty together, the succession of Kublai to the throne had already started the division of Mongol lands in the eastern reaches. Several sub-khanates were established including the Chagatai Khanate of Central Asia, the Golden Horde of Volga, the Ilkhanate based out of Iran, and the Yuan Khanate that Kublai himself rule. The divisions were initially to ease up the administrative process but this later became the reason for the decline of the Mongol dynasty. After the Songs had given in and the “Great Origin” was established, Kublai led several other military campaigns in Vietnam, Burma, and Sakhalin. Kublai was able to bring these regions under his empire but the expenses incurred in these campaigns were too much to be sustainable for the kingdom.

In 1274 and again in 1281, Kublai also launched the invasion into Japan. These sea invasions were huge failures, resulting in monumental financial losses.  In one instance, almost half of an armada consisting of more than 140,000 troops and thousands of sea vessels were destroyed by a typhoon. The Japanese hailed it as the “divine wind” or the kamikaze. Another failed invasion into Java and most of Kublai Khan’s troops was overcome by harsh terrain, the constant stress of war, the tropical heat, and diseases.

Kublai Khan’s Death

The fall of Kublai’s kingdom began with the death of his beloved wife, Chabi, in 1281. Four years later, Kublai Khan lost his eldest son and this led him to a life of drinking and addiction. Excess eating and drinking, as a way to overcome the grief, led to him becoming obese leading to gout. This finally took him to his death bed on the 18th of February, 1294. Kublai Khan was 79 when he died and he was buried secretly. The empire he left behind lasted for less than a century.